Abstract
This article describes the concept of UAV swarm warfare, summarizes the development status among major military powers, and lists four primary combat modes based on current capabilities and operational needs: reconnaissance and early warning, deception and jamming, swarm attack, and cooperative operations. It then outlines how UAV swarms could be employed in three representative scenarios: urban assault, island and reef landings, and cooperative anti-ship operations. Based on these modes and applications, the article discusses future operational trends to inform research and equipment development for UAV swarms.
Keywords
UAV swarm; combat modes; operational concepts; tactical employment; intelligent operations; cooperative operations
1. Introduction
A UAV swarm is a clustered system composed of large numbers of unmanned aerial vehicles that can communicate, sense autonomously, and make independent decisions [1]. Swarms offer strong battlefield survivability, diverse mission capabilities, rapid command and control, favorable cost-effectiveness, and high degrees of intelligent coordination. They represent a new form of combat power in intelligent warfare and are likely to change future conflict. This article first presents the concept and current development status of UAV swarm warfare internationally. It then analyzes main combat modes and their application in representative scenarios, and finally outlines future development trends.
2. UAV Swarm Combat Concept and Strengths/Weaknesses
2.1 Combat Concept
UAV swarm warfare envisions deploying a certain number of UAVs from dedicated launch platforms (for example, specialized vehicles, aircraft, or ships) outside the combat area. These UAVs carry mission-dependent payloads and form autonomously coordinated swarms through key technologies such as cloud computing, big data, and artificial intelligence algorithms. Guided by mission planning directives, swarms perform tasks including reconnaissance and early warning, deception and jamming, swarm attack, and intelligent coordination. Swarms can be classified by single-aircraft size, payload, and propulsion into types such as large reconnaissance-strike integrated, medium suicide-attack, small electronic warfare, and micro quadrotor reconnaissance platforms.
2.2 Advantages
(1) Strong battlefield survivability. UAV swarms are typically composed of medium, small, and micro platforms with low radar, optical, and acoustic signatures, making conventional air defenses less effective. Large numbers and decentralized architectures mean that loss or degradation of some units does not critically impair the overall system, providing robustness and self-healing capabilities unmatched by manned aircraft.
(2) Diverse mission set. Swarms can flexibly carry modules for command and control communications, electronic attack, reconnaissance, and strike, enabling missions such as surveillance, precision strike, relay communications, and effectiveness assessment.
(3) Rapid command and control. Individual UAVs, swarms, and control centers typically form ad hoc networks via control systems and communication links to rapidly distribute mission orders. This enables effective command and control, area allocation, and mission planning, forming a fast reconnaissance-control-strike-assessment loop. Swarms offer higher agility and responsiveness than traditional methods.
(4) Favorable cost-effectiveness. UAVs have simple designs and lower development and production costs. For example, some small tactical UAVs use composite materials and modular designs, with per-unit costs much lower than surface-to-air missiles or manned aircraft. Swarms require less training and reduced ground support, and they avoid personnel losses, resulting in significantly lower lifecycle cost per effect.
(5) High degree of intelligent coordination. Open architectures allow swarms to use information systems for autonomous sensing, fusion, and battlefield processing. Real-time information exchange and AI enable autonomous coordination, formation flight, mission decision-making, strike planning, and effect assessment across the operational cycle.
2.3 Limitations
(1) Limited single-aircraft performance. Constraints in structure, cost, and propulsion mean many swarm UAVs are relatively slow, have short endurance, and limited protection. Current tactical UAVs typically have top speeds under 250 km/h [4], which limits their effectiveness against manned aircraft and increases adversary reaction time during penetration missions, reducing swarm attack effectiveness. Limited range forces launch platforms to approach the target area, increasing detection and counterattack risk. Mitigations include higher-efficiency energy sources, improved charging, enhanced communications, and energy-saving measures to extend endurance and range.
(2) Vulnerability to electronic attack. Swarm operations rely on extensive information exchange for formation flight, task allocation, and navigation, making them highly dependent on communication links. Disruption of information flow can incapacitate the swarm. They are therefore susceptible to enemy electronic warfare and cyber attacks. Strengthening electronic protection, device hardening, and electromagnetic shielding can improve resilience.
3. Development Status in Major Militaries
3.1 United States
The U.S. has the longest history of UAV swarm research and the most prominent programs, setting many of the field's technical standards. The U.S. Department of Defense roadmap for unmanned systems (2017-2042) outlines plans for achieving fully autonomous swarm operations by around 2030 [8]. Various defense agencies and services are pursuing focused swarm projects with notable breakthroughs and a push toward operationalization.
Examples include:
- CODE (Collaborative Operations in Denied Environment), run by DARPA, which aims to develop modular software architectures and intelligent control algorithms to enable autonomous, coordinated swarm operations in contested electromagnetic environments. The goal is a closed-loop system where six or more UAVs autonomously detect, track, identify, and attack targets under heavy jamming [9].
- LOCUST (Low-Cost UAV Swarming Technology), funded by the Office of Naval Research, focuses on rapidly launching large numbers of small folding-wing UAVs from tubes for swarm flight and autonomous coordination. The system is compact for integration on ships, vehicles, and aircraft. LOCUST has demonstrated formation control for up to 30 Coyotes with multiple mission payloads for reconnaissance, electronic attack, and decoy functions, and aims to add more advanced autonomy [10].
- Gremlins, a DARPA program, explores air-recoverable small UAV swarms launched from transport or combat aircraft, capable of ad hoc networking and cooperative missions such as off-shore reconnaissance and electronic attack, with a reusable launch-recover model progressing through phased trials [11].
- Perdix, developed at MIT and adopted by the Department of Defense Strategic Capability Office, is a micro-UAV swarm with individual units around 200 g printed via additive manufacturing. These low-cost units can be hand-thrown or launched from land or air platforms and have shown basic autonomous formation and cooperative behaviors for saturation attack and decoy missions [12].
- Other projects target specific scenarios, such as OFFSET for urban swarm tactics and CICADA for close-in covert disposable aircraft prototypes [13][14].
3.2 China
China's UAV swarm research began later than some peers but has progressed rapidly. For example, a group reportedly completed flight tests of 67 and 119 small fixed-wing UAV swarms in 2016 and 2017, demonstrating catapult launches, automatic formation, target allocation, and collective maneuvers [15]. There are also reports of land-based containerized folding-wing swarm launches. Overall, research directions in China have been comparatively narrow and the pace of translating advanced technologies into military applications remains gradual, with notable gaps in operational use and tactics.
3.3 Other Countries
Other major militaries are also prioritizing swarm capabilities, with numerous programs in development. Examples include the EU's SEAD/DEAD (Suppression/Destruction of Enemy Air Defenses) initiatives, the UK Ministry of Defence's swarm team control competitions, and Russian efforts on fighter-controlled swarm coordination.
4. Primary UAV Swarm Combat Modes
4.1 Reconnaissance and Early Warning
Information dominance will be central to future conflicts. UAV swarms can carry cameras, low-light sensors, infrared scanners, and other reconnaissance payloads to blanket likely operational airspace for wide-area, long-duration, high-precision, multi-dimensional surveillance, filling gaps left by large airborne early warning aircraft, manned reconnaissance, and ground radar. Swarms can exploit strong penetration capabilities to conduct covert reconnaissance of high-value, deep-deployed targets using small teams equipped with laser illumination or other sensors, relaying intelligence through data links to decision makers.
4.2 Deception and Jamming
Tactical deception and electronic attack will be pervasive in intelligent operations. UAV swarms can carry various electronic attack payloads to execute tactical deception and jamming in three principal ways: (1) using swarms equipped with signal-emitting devices to emulate different manned aircraft types and numbers, luring enemy air defenses to activate and reveal positions for subsequent precision strikes; (2) employing large numbers of UAVs as tactical decoys to absorb initial air-defense engagements and protect main assault forces; (3) forming electronic warfare formations with active and passive emitters such as jammers, chaff, and tinsel to suppress enemy early warning radars, guided weapons, communication nodes, and electro-optical systems, degrading their situational awareness and command and control.
4.3 Swarm Attack
Swarm attack leverages the system's self-organization and coordination to mass many attack-capable UAVs into swarms to strike personnel, weapons, and facilities simultaneously or to launch multi-wave, multi-vector saturation strikes that overwhelm defenses. Tests have shown some shipboard air-defense systems struggle to counter coordinated swarm attacks [17].
4.4 Cooperative Operations
Cooperative modes divide into machine-to-machine and human-machine cooperation. Machine-to-machine cooperation involves heterogeneous UAV formations carrying complementary payloads that coordinate missions, weapon employment, and tasking autonomously. Human-machine cooperation involves mixed manned/unmanned task groups, including: (1) manned aircraft directing forward UAV swarms for reconnaissance in hazardous areas; (2) integrating swarms with other weapon systems to exploit their mass, small size, and cost-effectiveness to assault key nodes and pave the way for deeper strikes.
5. UAV Swarm Employment in Representative Combat Scenarios
5.1 Urban Assault
Urban assault presents complex, dynamic, and constrained environments where defenders can use multi-layered, distributed defenses. Swarms can be highly relevant across phases: advance reconnaissance and situational awareness, precision strikes on critical targets, and support for seizing key buildings.
(1) Early reconnaissance and situational awareness. UAV swarms carrying reconnaissance payloads can probe defender depth and relay intelligence through data links to support subsequent actions.
(2) Precision strike of high-value targets. Swarms can be delivered by ground or air platforms to strike critical defensive positions and fortifications with improved accuracy and flexibility.
(3) Support for capturing key buildings. Based on prior intelligence, heterogeneous swarms with complementary payloads can rapidly search and neutralize concealed threats inside structures using coordinated multi-vehicle tactics.
5.2 Island and Reef Landing Operations
Amphibious landings involve complex, multi-echelon operations where information, timeliness, and coordinated suppression are decisive. Swarms can be integrated across stages: convoy warning and escort, reconnaissance-strike integration on key targets, and depth penetration to secure control.
(1) Convoy early warning and escort. Swarms deployed around convoys extend situational awareness and increase reaction time to protect transit forces before full control is established.
(2) Reconnaissance and strike of key targets. Swarms can survey obstacles, fire plans, and defenses, perform close-in jamming of shore radars, and conduct precision strikes on coastal defenses.
(3) Depth penetration to secure control. Swarms can assist landing forces in reconnaissance, location, and strike of inland targets and serve as communications nodes to provide target data for coordinated attacks.
5.3 Cooperative Anti-Ship Operations
Surface ships are large, high-value, and relatively less maneuverable; many shipboard air-defense systems are not optimized for swarms. Large numbers of cooperative UAVs can saturate ship defenses and deliver concentrated strikes.
(1) Early reconnaissance and identification. Swarms launched from large transports or combat aircraft can autonomously form and identify enemy surface formations to provide fleet composition and target location intelligence.
(2) Multi-domain deception and interference. Swarms equipped with electronic attack payloads can perform distributed, frequency-agile jamming against shipboard radars and sensors, degrading detection and creating corridors for manned aircraft or missiles. Swarms can also simulate manned aircraft to draw defensive fire.
(3) Saturation swarm attack. Large numbers of low-cost small or micro UAVs carrying warheads can form multiple swarms to attack important ship targets and critical nodes in saturation attacks.
6. Future Development Trends
6.1 Technical Advances Will Upgrade Capabilities
Ongoing technological iterations will significantly improve swarm performance. Modular, functional payload designs will expand mission versatility. Standardized production with additive manufacturing and improved launch/recovery methods will lower costs. New energy and propulsion technologies, such as high-capacity batteries and small turbofan engines, will extend range and speed. Radiation-masking materials and electromagnetic protection will enhance stealth. Advances in mesh communications and networking will scale operational swarm sizes.
6.2 Tactical Innovation and Expansion
Technology drives tactics. Improved swarm capabilities will generate new operational concepts: (1) manned/unmanned cooperation will become a core tactical construct, with swarms integrated into joint force networks for shared situational awareness and coordinated decision-making; (2) large-scale heterogeneous swarms will be the baseline tactical grouping, with explicit task-based subdivisions configured by mission; (3) swarm-vs-swarm engagements will emerge as a principal form of combat as both sides field swarms with growing mission diversity.
6.3 Command and Decision-Making Will Become More Autonomous
Current swarm command largely follows a "human-in-the-loop" model, where swarms execute plans and orders from commanders. Future conflicts' high tempo and contested environments will expose the limits of purely human-mediated control. Artificial intelligence will endow swarms with rudimentary operational awareness, enabling autonomous target identification and engagement. The envisioned trajectory moves from "human-in-the-loop" to "human-on-the-loop" and ultimately to "human-out-of-the-loop" for fully autonomous command decisions under defined rules of engagement.
7. Conclusion
This article defined the UAV swarm combat concept, summarized swarm classifications and global development status, and outlined primary combat modes and representative scenario applications. It concludes with a projection of future trends. As technical and tactical capabilities and autonomy continue to advance, UAV swarm operations are likely to transform existing conflict models and become a foundational combat capability. Continued research on key technologies, tactics, and operational integration is required to enhance swarm effectiveness.
