Abstract
A report from the European Army Interoperability Center, "Ground Robots in Modern Warfare," notes that automation of military vehicles and systems has become a defining feature of conflict, and the emergence of ground robots has reshaped modern operations. Since their deployment in Afghanistan and Iraq, ground robots have evolved into increasingly capable and autonomous entities and are now key components of military operations. Recent conflicts, such as the Armenia–Azerbaijan clashes and the Russia–Ukraine war, have highlighted the significant battlefield effects of military robots and increased global military interest. However, challenges to integrating unmanned ground vehicles into operations have slowed their adoption. This report summarizes the development of ground robots, examines why they are becoming more prevalent in warfare, outlines integration challenges, and briefly reviews deployments in the current Russia–Ukraine conflict.
Keywords
ground robots, autonomous systems, modern battlefield, Russia–Ukraine conflict
Definition of Robots
Robot systems comprise two key elements: (1) an unmanned platform or vehicle, and (2) autonomous or semi-autonomous operation. "Autonomous" denotes operation without human intervention, while "semi-autonomous" requires remote human control. An expert at Canada’s Defence Research and Development organization, Simon Monckton, observes that since the early 21st century the proliferation of UAVs, UUVs, USVs, and unmanned ground vehicles has driven strong growth in military robotics. Robots now appear across all military domains. Ground robots face particular obstacles and therefore have higher technical requirements to ensure reliable mission execution.
Development of Ground Robots
Modernization of military equipment has triggered a race for technological advantage sometimes called a "robotics revolution." The expanding market for robots and autonomous systems covers many sizes and capabilities. Ground platforms range from major systems such as the US Army XM30 infantry combat vehicle and robotic combat vehicles (RCVs) envisioned in Next Generation Combat Vehicle programs, to throwaway surveillance and reconnaissance robots. Even among robotic combat vehicles there are distinct classes: light RCVs (RCV-L) weigh around 10+ tons and measure roughly 224 x 88 x 94 inches; medium RCVs (RCV-M) weigh 10–20 tons and measure about 230 x 107 x 94 inches; heavy RCVs (RCV-H) weigh 20–30 tons and measure about 350 x 144 x 142 inches. These platforms increase the standoff distance between friendly personnel and adversaries, enhancing personnel protection and driving further ground robot development.
Miniaturization of electronics is another driver of ground robot evolution. A growing demand for smaller, more maneuverable robots suitable for urban operations has produced many small ground robots, including systems such as TALON V, Dragon Runner 20, Avenger 2.0, and the NEVRA S reconnaissance robot. So far, ground robots have mainly performed casualty evacuation, surveillance and reconnaissance, explosive ordnance disposal, and firefighting. Small unmanned ground vehicles can take on high-risk or unsuitable tasks for humans, changing battlefield dynamics. In addition to ground-penetrating radar, these small vehicles often carry advanced sensors and cameras, including CBRN/HAZMAT sensors, enabling multifunctional roles and risk mitigation prior to force deployment. Higher automation allows operators to process large volumes of data quickly and respond faster than adversaries.
Small unmanned ground vehicles are compact and cost-effective, making mass procurement more affordable. Upgrading legacy manned vehicles with robotic kits can further extend their utility and accelerate automation. Applying robotic conversion kits to vehicles such as HMMWVs and M113 APCs can turn them into unmanned platforms, incorporating sensors and command systems that reduce personnel exposure. Combining reusable elements can enhance ground robot units at relatively low cost.
Advances in artificial intelligence continuously improve autonomous robot capabilities, enabling ground robots to work alongside humans. By 2030, the global fleet of unmanned ground vehicles is projected to grow from about 15,000 today to roughly 40,000. Several armed forces have begun integrating unmanned ground vehicles into training and exercises, and many states are developing systems such as Taros and SR-0001. Despite rising use in training, combat robots are far from fully autonomous.
Barriers and Challenges to Fielding Ground Robots
Observers at a major US Army association event noted Western caution about acquiring and deploying fully autonomous weapons. Common barriers fall into three categories: (1) technical limitations; (2) the potential to escalate conflict; and (3) ethical concerns. First, while unmanned ground vehicles offer cost and risk reductions, autonomous systems may lack sufficient intelligence and decision-making for certain tasks.
LiDAR sensors can provide long-range vision in light and dark conditions, assisting with object recognition and avoidance. However, LiDAR performance can be degraded by adverse weather, dust, and dense vegetation, and active laser emissions can be detected by countermeasures. Despite technical progress, unmanned systems cannot be infallible, so all ground robots require stringent human oversight. Second, reliance on robots for operational tasks and on automation for precision could paradoxically increase risk to personnel. Analysts warn against overreliance on technology, as it can increase the complexity and lethality of warfare. This concern is more relevant to large unmanned combat vehicles; small reconnaissance robots typically operate outside defended zones and pose less direct risk to human life. The rise of deepfake technologies is also alarming.
Deepfakes use artificial intelligence to simulate reality. In warfare, such technology could be used to spread false information or manipulate forces with fabricated orders. Small reconnaissance robots deployed inside structures could be misled by deepfake-driven signals. Likewise, hacking into autonomous ground robots could produce harmful outcomes. Concerns therefore include the possibility that deepfakes or cyberattacks could disrupt decision-making or alter operational outcomes. Finally, the deployment and use of ground robots raise significant ethical issues. The lack of clear, widely accepted accountability standards for alleged war crimes committed by robots presents major challenges to broader adoption. Experts warn that autonomous robots might violate principles of the law of armed conflict and emphasize the risk of unpredictable decisions by autonomous systems. Human involvement in decision-making remains essential to ensure lawful conduct and to assign responsibility, although this is unlikely to impede current use of small unmanned ground vehicles for reconnaissance and explosive ordnance disposal.
Ground Robots in Contemporary Conflicts
The impact of unmanned ground vehicles and ground robots is particularly evident in the Russia–Ukraine conflict, where Ukraine has effectively become an experimental theater for military robots. Use of ground robots in Ukraine has created a distinctive robotics battlefield and influenced international perspectives on developing autonomous weapons. As both sides deploy increasing numbers of ground robots, global restraint on autonomous weapon development has weakened. These evolving systems are prompting other states to develop robots that extend standoff distances and enhance ISR capabilities. Ground robots are currently used in logistics, casualty evacuation, and explosive ordnance disposal. Ukrainian officials have received many requests from robot suppliers to test systems in combat, underscoring Ukraine's role as a testing ground.
One notable example is the Sirko-S1 unmanned ground vehicle developed by the Brave 1 technology cluster in Ukraine. Sirko-S1 assists forces with logistics, casualty evacuation, and reconnaissance. Feedback from frontline users supports iterative technical improvements, such as adding turrets and clearance capabilities. Ukraine's experience demonstrates the growing importance of ground robots and the value of frontline feedback in refining unmanned systems.
Russia and Ukraine are rapidly deploying unmanned aerial and ground systems, accelerating integration of diverse unmanned platforms on the battlefield. Deployment in the conflict zone is keeping pace with technological development, providing an unusual environment for testing and innovation. There is strong interest in experimenting with autonomy, increasing production, and developing unmanned ground vehicles equipped with counter-UAS technologies. Overall, the ongoing conflict suggests ground robots and unmanned ground vehicles will continue to develop. Trends toward overcoming barriers and challenges are likely to support wider adoption, though the ultimate impact will depend on future technical progress.
